什么是翻译？
1.《牛津英语词典》和《韦伯斯特第三国际英语词典》的定义为。一种语言转换成另一语言。
2.《英汉词海》的定义为，翻译是一种行为、过程或实例，把一种语言或表现系统译成另一种语言或表现系统。道出了最基本的属性。3.苏联语言学派翻译理论家费道罗夫（Fedorov ）提出：“翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言的内容和形式不可分割地统一中业已表达出来的东西，准确而完全地表达出来。”他强调了内容和形式同译。4. 斯坦纳（Steiner）提出“理解就是翻译”。5.从宋代高僧范云的“夫翻译者，唯翻梵天之言转成汉地之语”，6.王宗炎的“翻译是用一种语言代替另一种语言来传达同样的信息。7.吕俊的“翻译是一种跨文化的信息交流与交换的活动。8.当代美国翻译理论家奈达(Nida)说:“所谓翻译,是指从语义到文体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息”。
中西翻译理论关注焦点 • 忠实
古罗马时期的贺拉斯（Horace）曾提到“忠实的译者”。两千多年以后，发生在中国初译《法句经》时文、质两派的争论就已提出了关于“信达雅的问题”。此后，忠实就成为“翻译界流传了几千年的神话”，“被无数翻译者们崇拜的图腾”。 然而，古今中外译界都围绕着译者应忠实于“形”还是忠实于“意”的问题展开“直译”和“意译”之争。
• 忠实于谁？
• 1、作者忠实论受到的质疑
• 2、文本忠实论受到的质疑
• 3、读者忠实论受到的质疑
• 4、译者忠实论受到的质疑
中国近代译论关注焦点（一、忠实的标准）
• 一、严复的“信、达、雅”三原则译事三难：信、达、雅。二、傅雷的“神似”，提出“以效果而论，翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。”
• 三、钱钟书的“化境” 文学翻译的最高标准是“化”。把作品从一国文宇转变为另一国文字。既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹。又能完全保存原有的风味，那就算得入于化境”。
• 中国近代译论关注焦点（二、翻译目的论）
• 徐光启（1562-1633）译书目的在“裨益民用” ，抓“急需”。使翻译从宗教、哲学转向自然科学。
• 林则徐 （1785-1850）是中国近代“开眼看世界的第一人”，名扬京师，“钦取翻译第一名”。他的翻译目的在于借鉴西方而“制敌”。
• 冯桂芬（1809-1874）认为翻译应为“天下第一要政服务”。
• 洋务派的代表---张之洞（1837-1909）提出“多译西国有用之书，以教不习西文之人。”
• 维新派康有为（1858-1927）译书重点从自然科学转向政治法律和学术书籍。
• 梁启超（1873-1929）疾呼：翻译有“救焚拯溺之用，”“必以译书为强国第一义，昭昭然也！”
• 严复（1854-1921）精通工程技术科学，但却将翻译重点转向西方社会科学和学术思想上，他的翻译目的是为了尽一个爱国者的天责。
• 林纾（1852-1924）中国近代翻译西方小说第一人，认为只有翻译才能“开民智”，抵御列强。广译书籍明确出于救国之情，就像为了疏导将枯之泉眼，复燃垂灭之火星一样紧急！
• 五四运动前三次翻译高潮
• 一、从东汉到宋的佛经翻译
• 二、明末清初的科技翻译
• 三、鸦片战争以后的西学翻译
五失本三不易
东晋高僧道安（314-385）论“五失本三不易”，意思是佛经在五种情况下会失去本
来面目，有三件事决定了译事是很不容易的。“五失本” ：一、经文乃外语，其词序由汉人看来是颠倒的，汉译时被改从汉语语法； 二、经文质朴，而汉人喜欢文采，为适合广大读者，译文有一定的修饰；三、经内论述，往往不厌其烦，尤其颂文更是反复再三，翻译时被删简；四、经文在长行之后，另有偈颂复述，称为“义说”，类似汉文韵文最后总结的“乱辞”，内容重复，或千字，或五百字，译时被删去；五、经文中讲完一事，告一段落，要转说他事时，又将前话重提，然后再往下说，这些话也被删除。所谓“三不易”是： 一、“圣人”本是按照当时的习俗来说法的，而今时代不同，要改古以适今，很不容易。二、 、“圣人”的智慧本非凡人可及，而要把千年前古代圣哲的微言大义传给后世的浅俗之众，很不容易；三、释迦牟尼死去之后，其大弟子阿难等人出经时尚且反复斟酌，兢兢业业，而今却要由平凡人来传译，更谈何容易。
英汉互译的词序问
汉语比较注重事物发展的客观顺序，先发生什么，后发生什么，结果怎样，最后才加上作者的评论和观点，不管有多少动词都可以并列、排比使用，不会出现词法、句法等的冲突 。主题显著，突出主题，而非单单的一个主语，注重句子的“意和”，这就要求我们透过句子的表层结构，深入到句子的内涵，先抓“整体”印象，充分理解过以后再把原文的意思形象翻译出来。而英语则不然，英语突出主语，往往是评论、观点在前，叙述、原因在后；表面形式上追求句子的“形和” ，对句子的结构要求非常严谨，特别强调句子结构的平衡，往往借助于句法、词法（如主从句、分词、不定式等手段）来维持句子表面上的平衡、完整性，极力避免句子的“头重脚轻”（因此，也就出现了许多“it is said that…” 等等无主句）。所以，英文则是把作者的观点、主张放在前面，以后再跟着原因、结果和目的等等从句。这些现象在新闻英语里尤其明显。
英汉互译时的时间顺序对比
The old-fashioned general store is fast disappearing.This is, perhaps, a pity,because shopping today seems to lack that personal element which existed when shop keeper knew all his regular customers personally.旧时的百货店很快就消失了。过去，店主私下里都认识他的老主顾们，而在今天 这种事情再也不复存在了，这实在是太可惜了。
托马斯.杰弗逊为美国的教育作出了很大的贡献. American education owes a great deal toTomas Jefferson.
倒装句型：典型的英汉翻译顺序差异
Under the dust was a color map of Paris.(彩色的巴黎地图上布满了灰尘。)Written on the card was a message under the printed Happy Birthday. (卡片上“生日快乐”字样的下面写着一条消息。)
英汉互译时逻辑思维顺序上的差异
如果一个句子里既有叙事的部分，又有表态的部分，在汉语里往往是叙事在前，表态在后，叙事部分可以很长，表态部分一般都很短。而在英语里则往往相反，表态在前，叙事在后。
英汉互译时逻辑思维顺序上的差异：表原因
I am very happy and grateful to receive your message of greetings.接到你们的贺函， 我十分愉快和感谢
My friend asked the question when I told him that I didn’t want to be considered for an administrative position. He was puzzled that I did not want what was obviously a \"step up\" toward what all Americans are taught to want when they grow up: money and power.所有美国人受的教育就是：长大成人后应该追求金钱和权力，而我却偏偏不要明明是朝这个目标 “迈进”的工作, 他对此大惑不解。
英汉互译时逻辑思维顺序上的差异：表目的、表条件和结果
表目的 The two sides agreed that it is desirable to broaden the understanding between the two peoples双方同意，扩大两国人民之间的了解是可取的
表条件和结果时的顺序：One can never succeedwithout making great efforts.1（ 结果） 2（条件）译文：( 不努力 就不会成功。)
2（条件）1（结果）在当今的教育界， 已经涌现出了大批的优秀人才。Large numbers of talented personshave cometo the fore in today’s education circle.
人们关于终生饮酒的效果却知道的很少Little isknown about the effect of life-longdrinking.
因语法手段而造成的英汉次序不一
1.存在句的句子里可见到大量的英汉次序不一的现象：There was rising in him a dreadful uneasiness; something very precious that he wanted to hold seemed close to destruction.(他心里涌起一种难言的焦灼，因为他原来一直想保住的东西现在好
象要毁灭了。)
在某些表示“融合性”的定语从句中：a.There are many people who want to see the film.（许多人要看这部电影）b.There is a man downstairs who wants to see you.（楼下有人要见你）
2.英语里的有些形式主语也大都采用了倒装词序：无主句It suddenly dawned on me that this express was not roaring down the line at ninety miles an hour, but barely chugging along at thirty.(后来，我才突然明白，这次快车并非以90英里的时速疾弛而下，而只不过是以30英里的时速慢慢向前行驶。)It is reported that ……
3.倒装句型a.Not a single word have we written down as yet. （否定）(我们连一个字都没有写。)
b.Little does he realize the danger he is in （否定）(他一点都没有意识到危险性。)
4.一些特殊的结构
中国自从改革开放以来，发生了很大的变化。 A great many changes have taken place in China since the policy of reform and opening to the outside world.
轮子是公元前六世纪发明的。600 B.C. saw the invention of wheel
翻译难点：习俗古今差异之中国孝道文化变迁
马建忠—《拟设翻译书院议》十九世纪末中国著名语文学家马建忠《马氏文通》于1898
年问世，为我国第一部以西方语法理论比较全面、系统地研究古代汉语的语法著作，对中国语言学史做出了开创性的贡献。我们却不容忽视他所倡导的另一种研究翻译的方法。《拟设翻译书院议》其实，马建忠利用了他本人对现在通常所说的对比语言学的深刻了解，对翻译研究方法进行了概要性的描述。他认为，要译好一个作品，译者必须不遗余力地对源语和目的语文本进行细致缜密的分析。通过对原、译文中词和句子的比较研究，译者才能弄清楚造成两种语言在表达上的异同及其原因。只有在对原作“心悟神解”之后，译者才有可能“振笔而书译之成文”。
中西关于“如何忠实？”(一)中国：关于如何忠实的问题，陈福康先生在写完《中国译学理论史稿》后慨叹“相当丰富、相当落后”，因为“经验漫谈有余而科学阐发不足”。西方1. From Cicero(1st century B.C.) to the 20th century
The recurring and sterile debate as to whether translation should be literal, free or faithful
Controversy over the translation of the Bible and other religious texts was central to translation theory.
Dryden’s (17th century) triad (metaphrase, paraphrase, imitation) of the late 17th century marked the beginning of a more systematic and precise definition of translation#41. 幻灯片 41
Schleiermacher’s (19th century)respect for the foreign text was to have considerable influence over scholars in modern times.(stressing foreignizing; breathing new life into the language)
Early theorist tended to be translators who presented a justification for their approach in a preface to the translation, often paying little attention to what others before them had said.
Metaphrase: “word for word and line by line” translation, which corresponds to literal translation Paraphrase: “translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so stricly followed as his sense”; this involves changing whole phrases and more or less corresponds to faithful or sense-for-sense translation.
Imitation: “forsaking” both words and sense; this corresponds to very free translation and is more or less adaptattion.
王小玉便启朱唇、发晧齿，唱了几句书儿。
译文1：Now open her rosy lip and her ivory white teeth shine, her song begins! (metaphrase)
译文2：Little Jade then parted her lips and sang a few lines. (paraphrase)
译文3：Little Jade then opened her mouth and sang a song. (imitation)
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834)
Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (1768-1834) t he is certainly one of the most interesting of the second-tier philosophers of the period. Nor was he only a
philosopher; he was also an eminent classicist and theologian. it is probably his hermeneutics (i.e. theory of interpretation) and his theory of translation that deserve the most attention. founder of modern hermeneutics: interpretation is based not on absolute truth but on the individual’He considers there to be only two paths open for the “true ”translator: Either the translator leaves the writer alone as much as possible and moves the reader toward the writer, or he leaves the reader alone as much as possible and moves the writer toward the reader.His preferred strategy is the first, moving the reader towards the writer. To achieve this, the translator must adopt an “alienating”(as opposed to “naturalizing”) method of translation, orienting himself or herself by the language and content of the ST. He or she must valorize the foreign and transfer that into the TL.
心较比干多一窍，病如西子胜三分。（《红楼梦》）She looked more sensitive than Pikan , more delicate than Hsi Shih. (Tr. Yang Xianyi)
中西关于“如何忠实？”(二
西方2：The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s.
Roman Jacobson’s categories of translation:
语内翻译（Intralingual Translation）语际翻译（Interlingual Translation）符际翻译（Intersemiotic Translation） written works to music,film or painting
With the development of modern linguistics [Saussure’s demarcation of linguistic signs into the signifier(the spoken and written signal) and the signified(the concept signified), but that sign is arbitrary or unmotivated.] , new questions appeared
The English word cheese is the acoustic signifier which “denotes” the concept “food made of pressed curd”(the signified), but there is no inherent reason for that to be so. Jakobson stresses that it is possible to understand what is signified by a word even if we have never seen or experienced the concept or thing in real life.(道；逻各斯；超灵；鬼) He points out that there is no full equivalence between code-units
「道可道，非常道，名可名，非常名。無名，天地之始，有名，萬物之母。故常無欲以觀其妙，常有欲以觀其徼，此兩者同出而異名，同謂之玄 ，玄之又玄，眾妙之門。」 Tao (way or path) can be said, not usual way；the tao that is utterable is not the eternal ； the tao that is utterable is...not the eternal Tao ；dao can-be dao, not constant dao ）
Central to Nida’s work is the move away from the old idea that an orthographic word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word “acquires” meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.#54. 幻灯片 54
语言语境对多义词起限制作用
(1)I like to write with a ball-pen. 我喜欢用圆珠笔。
(2)Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. 相同的电荷相斥，不同的电荷相吸。
(3)You should perform like a noble girl anywhere. (3) 在任何地方你都应该表现得像个贵族女孩
(4)Like knows like.。(4) 英雄识英雄。
语言语境对词义的褒贬起限制作用
1) He went through on that purely superficial “cram” and got
compliments too, while others, who knew a thousand times more than he got plucked. 就凭这点儿纯粹是“填鸭式”的表面功夫，他过了关，而且还受到表 扬；而别人呢，虽比他强一千倍，却 被淘汰了。
2) The gangster would quickly put a man out of business by destroying his shop.
歹徒就会捣毁他的店，使他生意做不下去。
3) He has the reputation of being a great scholar man in the nation-wide. 他以博学而闻名全国。
语言语境对句意的确定起限制作用
Nida’s books analyzes meaning systematically and proposes that a translation should aim forquivalent effect. His great achievement is to have drawn translation theory away from the stagnant “literal vs. free” debate into the
modern era. His concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence place the receiver in the center of the equation.
中西关于“如何忠实？”(三
西方3：The 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of attempts at detailed taxonomies of small linguistic changes(shift) in ST-TTpairs.(pure linguistic way（But Fussiness of category boundaries and the automatic counting of shifts are problems of this linguistic model
The two general translation identified by Vinay and Darbelnet are direct translation and oblique(indirect) translation, which hark(go) back to the “literal vs. free” division. The two categories comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers three:
1. Borrowing: The SL word is transferred directly to the TL. 3G 你的生活 taikonaut(太空人) tofu(豆腐)、kungfu(功夫)、 fengshui(风水) 、typhoon(台风)、“大亨”的tycoon来自粤语 、guanxi(关系)、 mahjong 这是CPU啊，不是其它软件啊，你怎么赔得起啊？
从jiaozhi(饺子)、qipao(旗袍)、mahjong(麻将)，到Confucius(孔子)、Confucianism(儒家思 想)、Four Books(四书)、Five Classics(五经)，反映的是中国绵延5000年的传统文化；而Running dogs(走狗)、 paper tigers(纸老虎)是中华民族抵抗列强欺压的证明。
2. Calque(仿译、译借): This is “a special kind of borrowing” where the SL
expression or structure is transferred in a literal translation.意义的仿译很容易造成目的语中词义的丰富和扩大
形式的仿译，是指通过逐个词素（或词）的对译把源语中的合成词（或词组）的内部语义形式译借到目的语中来的翻译方式，这实际上是译借了源语中的语义组合模式。例如，我们比较熟知的“超市”、“峰会”、“替身门” “艳照门”等。
3. Literal translation，namely “word-for-word’ translatio 1) It was an old and ragged moon. 那是一个又老又破的月亮. 2) Many of his ideas are especially interesting to modern youth.Word-for-word translation: 他的许多思想对当代青年特别有趣. 3) Every atom of your flesh is as dear to me as my own: in pain and sickness it would still be dear.Word-for-word translation: 你的肉中的每一个原子，对我来说，都像我自己一样亲；即使在病痛中，仍然是亲的. 4) Being a teacher is being present at the creation, when the clay begin to breathe.Word-for-word translation: 当一名教师意味着是创造的见证人，他目睹人体开始呼吸，开始了生命. 4. Transposition( 调换\\变换\\移项 )Transpositon.doc Modulation(调整)：This changes the semantics and point of view of the
SL,including: Abstract for concrete Cause-effect Part-whole Part-another part Reversal of terms Negation of opposite Active-passive Space for time Change of symbol
Equivalence:refer to cases where languages describe the same situation by different stylistic or structural means. Equivalence is particularly useful in translating idioms and proverbs.
Achilles’heel (唯一致命弱点) , a Pandora’s box (潘多拉之盒—灾难、麻烦、祸害的根源等) , paint the lily (画蛇添足) , meet one’s waterloo(一败涂地) , cut the Gordian’s knot (快刀斩乱麻) 等等。Every dog has his day (人皆有得意之时) , Dog does not eat dog (同类不相残) 等Spend money like water , 而汉语是“挥金如土”。 As strong as a horse力大如牛 ; work like a horse像牛一样勤劳。Easy come , easy go. 来得容易, 去得快; To be on thin ice 如履薄冰; a drop in the ocean 沧海一粟; to be out at elbows 捉襟见肘; at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟;The Trojan horse 特洛伊木马; armed to the teeth 武装到牙齿; a cat has nine lives 猫有九命; tower of ivory 象牙塔; 八股文 eight - legged essay;To shed crocodile tears —猫哭老鼠; six of one and half a dozen of the other —半斤八两; 雪中送炭—to offer fuel in snowy weather;一人得道, 鸡犬升天 —even the dog swaggers when its master wins favor
Adaptation: This involves changing the cultural reference when a situation in the source culture does not exist in the target culture.
“望子成龙” to hope that one’s son will become dragon ; to hope that one’s son will become somebody “天有不测风云” Something unexpected may
happen any time
As old as Methuselah “同玛士撒拉一样老” “寿比南山”或“长命百岁”
the dog that will fetch a bone will carry a bone对你说别人坏话的人, 也会说你的坏话
中西关于“如何忠实？”(四)
西方4：Functionalist and communicative theories advanced in Germany in the 1970s and 1980s moved translation from static linguistic model to being considered as an act of intercultural communication.
Reiss’s initial work links language function, text type, genre and translation strategy. Reiss’s approach was later coupled to Vermeer’s highly influential skopos theory, where the translaion strategy is decided by the function of the TT in the target culture.
The ST is dethroned in this model and the translation is judged not by equivalence of meaning but by its adequacy to the functional goal of the TT situation. Katharina Reiss
Katharina Reiss’s work in the 1970s builds on the concept of equivalence but views the text, rather than the word or sentence, as the level at which
communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought.
1. “Plain communication of facts”: information, knowledge, opinion,etc. The language dimention used to transmit the information is logical or referential, the content or “topic”is the main focus of the communication, ant the text type is informative.
2.“Creative composition”: the author uses the aesthetic dimention of language. The author or “sender” is foregrounded, as well as the form of message, and the text type is expressive.
3. “Inducing behavioroural responses”: the aim of the appellative function is to appeal or persuade the reader or “receiver” of the text to act in a certain way. The form of language is dialogic, the focus is appellative and the text type is operative.
Translational action: Holz-Manttari
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human
interaction
and
focuses
on
the
process
of
translation
as
message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer
Interlingual translation is described as “translational action from a source text” and as a communicative process involving a series of roles and players:
The initiator:需要翻译的公司或个人The commissioner: 联系译者的人The ST producer: 写作原语文本但未必介入翻译过程的人theTT Producer： 译者theTT user: 教材和销售资料的使用者The TT receiver: 学生或顾客
Skopos theory： Hans J. Vermeer
Skopos(aim/goal) theory focuses above all on the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result.
An important advantage of skopos theory is that it allows the possibility of the same textbeing translated in different ways according to the purpose of the TT and the commission which is given to the translator.The nature of the TT “is primarily determined by its skopos or commission” and adequacy comes to override equivalence as the measure of the translational action.
中西关于“如何忠实？”(五
西方5：The 1970s-1990s saw the growth of discourse analysis in applied linguistics. Building on Halliday’s systematic functional grammar, it has come to be used in translation analysis.
Works by both Baker(1992) and Hatim and Mason(1990,1997) bring together a range of ideas from pragmatic and sociolinguistics that are relevant for translation and translation analysis.
Begin to consider the way social and power relations are negotiated and communicated in translation.
中西关于“如何忠实？”(六
西方6：Even Zohar’s poysystem theory moves the study of translation out of the static linguistic anlysis of shifts and obsession with one-to-one equivalence and into an investigation of the position of translated literature as a whole in the historical and literary systems of the target culture.
Toury then focuses attention on finding a methodology for descriptive translation studies, aiming to identify the patterns of behavior in the translation, to reconstruct the norms at work and to discover probablistic laws of translation.
中西关于“如何忠实？”(七)
西方7：The cultural turn: is the term used in translation studies for the move towards the analysis for translation from a cultural studies angle.
Simon and Canadian feministstranslation project: Making the feminine visible.
Postcolonial translation theories:Translation has played an active role in the colonization process and the image of the conoized.
中西关于“如何忠实？”(八)
Parallelistic vs. vertical development
从英汉对比的视角来探讨两种语言间的翻译（1.1 照应phoricity
照应 在语篇中，如果对于一个词语的解释不能从词语本身获得，而必须从该词语所指的对象中寻求答案，这就产生了照应关系。(Halliday &Hasan,1976:31) 照应是一种语义关系。
1. 人称照应 汉语中没有关系代词,而英语有别于汉语的一个重要特征在于英语中有关
系代词.因此,在许多情况下,汉语语篇中的人称代词在对应的英语表达中可以用关系代词表示. 这张条子是安娜留的，她刚才到这儿来过。This note was left by Anna,who was here a moment ago.
2. 指示照应 这/那 this/that 在汉语语篇中，“这”可以用来指称别人说的话或提到的
事，而在相同的情况下，英语却一般用that;在汉语语篇中，“这”可以用来指称上文中刚发生的事英语却必须用that；在汉语中，“这”和“那”在表达时空距离时往往受心理或视觉影响，而英语中的this/that 表达的距离概念较接近实际的时空远近距离;在元照应中，即当发话者指称上文的陈述时，汉语用“这”而英语用that
To be or not to be: that is a question.是生存还是死亡，这是一个问题
英语和汉语在指示指称上的一个最大差异是英语有一个既非this又非that的定冠词the。在指示照应系统中，定冠词the表示其所指对象是特定的并且是可识别的。由于汉语中没有定冠词，汉语在表达相应的指称意义时主要借助以下几种手段：1 零式特指 原词重复且前面无特指限定词修饰，如：此时骤然吹来了一阵凉风。对面树上有什么鸟儿在叫。
一群鸽子扑扑地飞到范博文他们跟前……范博文的注意便移到了鸽子。（矛盾：《子夜》）2 “这”和“那”的使用，此时其功能相当于英语中的定冠词the 如：他从包里掏出一张照片，看了看，又将那照片扔在她的脚边。He took a picture out of his bag and looked at it, then threw the picture at her feet.
替代与照应的区别 替代（substitution）指的是用替代形式（substitute）来取代上
文中的某一成分。在语法和修辞上，替代被认为是为了避免重复而采用的一种重要的语言手段。
照应是一种语义关系，指代成分和所指对象间具有语义上的一致性和认同关系，而替代成分与被替代成分间仅仅是词汇语法关系（lexicogrammatical relation），二者间不存在语义上的一致性和认同关系。e.g.1 She wore the pale blue summer blouse which he had brought her home as a present on Saturday. It had cost him ten and eleven pence.（完全等同）
e.g.2 Can I have a cup of black coffee with sugar, please?
Give me the same, please.(仅仅是同类中的一个)
小句替代
引语（report）替代 e.g1. Men often propose for practice. I know my brother John does. All my girl-friends tell me so. e.g2. Tom said there would be going to be a demonstration.
A. Really? John didn’t say so.
B. Mary said not.
条件（condition）替代 It’s said that Mr. Fan, leaving his young pupils behind, escaped to the safety. If so, he will be condemned by the public.
“You should check your own behavior and truly feel ashamed of what you have done. If not, don’t ask for further legal aid from me,” said the lawyer.
情态(modality)替代 Would you like her if you were me? Well, perhaps/possibly/probably so/not certainly/surely/of course not.
省略 （ellipsis）指的是把语言结构中的某个成分省去不提。它是为了避免重复，使表达简练、紧凑、清晰的一种修辞方式。根据法国著名语言学家马丁内（Martinet,1962）的经济原则（Economy Principle），人们在使用语言进行交际的过程中尽量使用比较少的、省力的语言单位，从而以较少的力量消耗来传达较大量的信息。省略即符合语言使用的经济原则。E.g1 Joan brought some carnations, and Catherine some sweet peas.
名词性省略Nominal ellipsis 是指名词词组全部、部分及其中心词的省略。 “I think I have heard you say, that their uncle is an attorney in Meryton.”Yes;and they have another, who lives somewhere near Cheapside.” “That is capital,” added her sister, and they both laughed heartily.
动词性省略（verbal ellipsis）发生在动词词组内的全部省略或动词省略。动词性词组
=操作词 operator+lexical verb实义动词
1. Is John going to come?—He might. He was to, but he may not.实义动词省2. What have you been doing?---Swimming.操作词省略3. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man.(F.Bacon: Of Studies) 读书使人充实，讨论使人机智，笔记使人准确。(王佐良译：《谈读书》)4. By birth he was an Englishman; by profession, a sailor; by instinct and training, a rebel.就出生来说，他是英国人；就职业来说，他是海员；就本性和教育来说，他是叛逆者
2. 这种省略多见于问答语列中。小句省略是指整个小句或小句的一部分被省略的现象
3. 英汉省略现象的差异 西方民族讲求形式逻辑，强调主客体的分离，因此在语言上重“形合”，句子表达精密，语法结构严谨；而汉民族则秉持“天人合一”思想，强调主客体的融合，因此在语言上重“意合”，表达富有弹性，语法关系松散。如，今年的收成比去年（的收成）好。 The harvest of this year is better than that of last year.
4. 汉语省略主语，而英语则不能省略主语:
脱下衣服的时候，他听得外面很热闹，阿Q生平本来最爱看热闹，（他）便即寻声走出去了。（他）寻声渐渐的寻到赵太爷的内院里，虽然在黄昏中，（他）却辨得出许多人，赵府一家连两日不吃饭的太太也在内，还有间壁的邹七嫂，真正本家的赵白眼，赵司晨。（鲁迅：《阿Q 正传》） While he was taking off his shirt he heard an upsoar outside,and since Ah Q always liked to join in any excitement that was going, he went out in search of the sound. He traced it gradually right into Mr. Chao’s inner couryard. Although it was dusk he could see many people there:all the Chao
familly including the mistress who had not eaten for two days. In addition, their neighbor Mrs Tsou was there, as well as their relatives Chao Pai-yen and Chao Szu-chen.(杨宪益、戴乃迭译The True Story of Ah Q
汉语中有时会出现一连串的无主句，而英语中的无主句是无法忍受的。当一连串的动作由同一个施事主语控制时，英语中往往用多个简单句来表达，或者用并列连词将一连串的动作连接起来。
忽然收住，赵伯韬摇摇身体站起来，从烟匣中取一枝雪茄衔在嘴里，又将那烟匣向立玉亭面前一推，做了个“请罢”的手势，便又埋身在沙发里，架起了腿，慢慢地擦火柴，燃着那枝雪茄。（矛盾：《子夜》） With this, Chao po-tao suddenly swung his feet to the floor and stood up. He took a cigar from the case on the table and stuck it between his teeth, then slid the cigar-case towards L Yu-ting with a gesture of invitation to help himself. He settled himself on the sofa again, propped up his legs, slowly struck a match, and began lighting his cigar.(许孟雄译：
定语从句的翻译
I want a man who will throw his hat over the Chindwin(钦敦江) and then lead his troops after it
我要的是这样一个人，一个能在钦敦江破釜沉舟并率部过江的人。
They are striving for the ideal which is close to the heart of every Chinese and for which, in the past, many Chinese have laid down their lives他们正努力去实现一
个理想，那个每一位中国人珍藏于心中的理想，那个许许多多中国人曾为之献出了生命的理想
Sometimes when he came he was silent and moody, and after a few sarcastic remarks went away again, to tramp the streets of Lincoln, which were almost as quiet and oppressively domestic as those of Black Hawk. 参考译文： 有时他进来后
会少言寡语，闷闷不乐，发几句尖刻的议论后又起身离去，继续漫步于林肯市的那些大街，那些几乎和黑鹰镇的街道同样冷清、同样沉闷、同样把生活关在各家屋里的大街。 If she had long lost the blue-eyed, flower-like charm, the cool slim purity of face and form, the apple-blossom colouring which had so swiftly and so oddly affected Ashurst twenty-six years ago, she was still at forty-three a comely and faithful companion, whose cheeks were faintly mottled,and whose grey-blue eyes had acquired a certain fullness虽说在四十三岁的今天，她早已失去了她那双蓝眼睛中
花儿一般的妩媚，失去了她身段的苗条和脸上那种恬静与纯真，失去了她犹如苹果花一样红润的肤色，失去了她26年前曾使阿舍斯特一见倾心的神奇魅力，而且她脸上已隐隐约约出现了斑纹，灰蓝色的眼睛也稍稍有点浮肿，但她依然是他相宜而忠实的侣伴。（曹明伦）
翻译技巧训
分译 division/splitting把原文句子中的个别词、短语或从句分离出来，单独译出，自成短语，或使原文的一个句子分译成两个或两个以上的句子。
1.A movie of me leaving that foxhole would look like a shell leaving a rifle. 我离开那个单人掩体速度之快，要是拍成电影的话，会象出膛的子弹一样。（名词译成小句）
引申extension 根据引申义与本义的差别远近，引申有三个层次：近似、深化、升华。近似的引申是指接近本义但又不为本义所限的引申；深化的引申是指赋予新义、但与本义在字面上尚有蛛丝马迹的联系；升华的引申则出自本义而在字面上远离本义。
句式调整 syntactical readjustment 常指分句先后次序的调整。中文固有的习惯语序是：先偏后正、先因后果、先假设后论证、先让步后推论；在时空关系上，先发生的先说，后发生的后说，由远及近，由大到小。凡不符合汉语习惯者，翻译时要做调整。如：汉语说父母在不远游，英语却说One shouldn’t go travelling afar when one’s parents are aliveOut of position, out of administration.(不在其位不谋其政。)
合译combination 将二三个句子合译为一个句子，以使译文简洁流畅、语气贯通、逻辑严密、概念明确。如，The four men huddled there and said nothing. They dared not smoke. The would not move
具体化 specification 是指缩小某一词语指称对象的外延，扩大其内涵，使读者清楚地了解确切含义。例如：Torcello, which used to be lonely as a cloud, has recently become an outing from Venice. (托车罗往日寂寞如孤云，近来却成了威尼斯外围的游览点。) The lower rooms were entirely given over to the birds, who walked about them with proprietary air, as though the place had been built by themselves,…(Tess)(楼下的屋子全是那些公鸡母鸡的领土，它们在那儿走来走去，把主人翁的架子摆得十足，好像盖这所房子的就是它们自己，..)（张谷若译）
抽象化 Abstraction 与具体化相对，指词在特定语境中的外延扩大，内涵缩小，使词义更趋笼统。例如：As far as the head goes, at least, she does credit to the educational system pursued at my establishment.(无论如何，就智力才能而论，她确
实能为本校所遵循的教育制度增光。)/ The lower rooms were entirely given over to the birds, who walked about them with proprietary air, as though the place had been
built by themselves,…(Tess)(楼下的屋子全是那些公鸡母鸡的领土，它们在那儿走来走去，把主人翁的架子摆得十足，好像盖这所房子的就是它们自己，..)（张谷若译）
辞格转换 conversion of figures of speech
大部分英语修辞格都能在汉语中找到相似甚至相同的修辞方式，而形似之中又各有特点。由于双方历史、文化（包括审美观）、习俗的不同，在表达同一概念时，有时使用不同的修辞格；即使采用同一修辞格，例如比喻，在结构方式、运用 范围方面也不尽相同。如：他挥金如土He made the money fly.(明喻转变为暗喻) Up shot the rocket into the sky.轰的一声火箭就上了天。（倒装转换成拟声法）；李商隐诗句春蚕到死丝方尽，许渊冲译为The silkworm till its death spins silk from love-sick heart.(双关转暗喻)
“黄鼠狼给鸡拜年—The weasel goes to pay his respects to the hen —not with the best of intentions ; 盲人瞎马—A blind man on a blind horse —rushing headlong to disaster ; 又要马儿跑, 又要马儿不吃草—You can’t make your horse work without feeding her ; “借花献佛”Present Buddha with flowers given by another —make a gift of something given by another ; “缘木求鱼”Climb a tree to catch fish —a fruitless approach;“东施效颦” Dongshi imitates Xishi ;Dongshi , an ugly woman , knitting her brows in imitationof the famous beauty Xishi , only to make herself uglier ; “一个和尚挑水喝, 两个和尚抬水喝, 三个和尚没水喝” One monk , two buckets ; two monks , one bucket ; three monks , no bucket , no water —more hands , less work
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